Dietetics in ancient Greek philosophy: Plato's concepts of healthy diet

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2001) 55, 532±537 ß 2001 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved 0954±3007/01 $15.00 www.nature.com/ejcn Original Communication Dietetics in ancient Greek philosophy: Plato's concepts of healthy diet PK Skiadas1* and JG Lascaratos1 1 Department of History of Medicine, University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens, Greece Plato (5th ± 4th century BC), one of the most important philosophers of Greek antiquity, left a valuable spiritual heritage, compiled in his famous dialogues. His teachings extend to almost every single ®eld of human knowledge. Among other philosophical concepts, Plato's works are imbued with the fundamental principle of moderation. This spirit is characteristically evident in his references to human diet. According to the philosopher, a moderate and thus a healthy diet, consists of cereals, legumes, fruits, milk, honey and ®sh. However, meat, confectionery and wine should be consumed only in moderate quantities. Excesses in food lead to ailments and therefore should be avoided. Plato considers physicians responsible for the regulation of human diet, for medicine is a science and not merely an art as in the case of cookery. The dietary pattern presented in Platonic dialogues shares many common components with the highly-reputed Mediterranean diet. As a whole, Plato's writings represent a valuable source for the study of the nutritional customs during the classical period of ancient Greece. Descriptors: history of nutrition; dietetics; Plato European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2001) 55, 532±537 Introduction Ancient Greeks paid special attention to nutritional matters because they believed that the proper diet is a precondition for corporal and intellectual well-being. It was everyday experience that made them recognise the importance of diet in both health and illness. In fact, many diseases were attributed to `unhealthy' diet and nutritional intervention was a very common means of treating the various human ailments. *Correspondence: PK Skiadas, 121 ± 123 Anakreodos Street, 15771 Zografou, Athens, Greece E-mail: Guarantor: PK Skiadas. Contributors: This study was conceived by PKS, who also wrote the original paper. Both the contributors reviewed Plato's works in regard to references to human diet. JGL carefully reviewed the text and gave this article its ®nal form. Received 3 October 2000; revised 21 December 2000; accepted 10 January 2001 With the gradual transition of medicine from an empirical to a rational art, dietetics became a separate branch of medicine. It is noteworthy that Podalirius, one of the two physicians mentioned in Homer's epics (8th century BC), had a special interest in dietetics. Later on, Hippocrates (5th century BC), the most eminent ancient Greek physician, dedicated his treatise `On diet' to the presentation of his nutritional concepts and the role of diet in the treatment of diseases. Furthermore, many remarks of the entire Hippocratic work (Corpus Hippocraticum) lucidly reveal the importance of the nutritional choices in human nosology and therapeutics. In the following centuries, many physicians emphasised the importance of diet in maintaining health. Erasistratus and Herophilus (3rd century BC), both members of the famous medical school of Alexandria, Celsus (1st century AD), and Galen (2nd century AD) wrote extensively on diet (Fidanza, 1979). Diet was a favourable issue not only to physicians but even to philosophers. Athenaeus (2nd ± 3rd century AD), for example, recorded many of the nutritional habits of the classical era of Greek antiquity (5th and 4th centuries BC) in his work entitled `Deipnosophists'. The famous philosophical works of Plato with their frequent references to diet are another example of how food in¯uenced almost every aspect of life in ancient Greek society. Plato's views on diet PK Skiadas and JG Lascaratos Dietetics in platonic dialogues Plato is one of the most important philosophers of Greek antiquity. He was born in Athens during a plague epidemic in 428 BC and died in 348 BC. Plato visited many places around the Mediterranean; these trips gave him the opportunity to become familiar with the culture of the Egyptians, the Sicilians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians and the Jews. In 387 BC Plato returned to his native city and established the famous Academy, which is thought to be the ancestor of modern universities. His students compiled his teachings in 43 books. With only one exception, these writings have the form of dialogues between Plato's spiritual and philosophical mentor, Socrates, and his students. Platonic writings cover almost every aspect of philosophy and science. In a purely philosophical collection, such as the Platonic work, the appearance of nutritional habits of the time could be expected to be rather limited. Nevertheless, the philosopher does not omit to use even the human diet as an example and background for intellectual quest but also takes this opportunity to criticise harshly the materialistic concept of life and to condemn the attachment of the individual to earthly possessions. The nutritional references in the Platonic dialogues correspond totally to the moderate atmosphere prevailing in Greek antiquity, which constituted the moral symbol of all aspects of intellectual and social life. Many passages in the Platonic texts prove that the philosopher recognised the importance of the right nutrition for corporal development: `For there ought to be no other secondary task to hinder the work of supplying the body with its proper exercise and nourishment' (`Laws' 807D).{ The myth of the cicadas who were singing the whole day long and died as a consequence of `forgetting food and drink' symbolises the necessity of nourishment for survival (`Phaedrus' 259B ± C). Physical development is achieved with nutrition through which `¯esh is added to his (ie man's) ¯esh and bones to his bones, and in the same way the appropriate thing is added to each of his other parts' (`Phaedo' 96C ± D and `The Statesman' 288E ± 289A). In `The Republic' (369D) it is strongly emphasised that `the ®rst and chief of our needs is the provision of food for existence and life'. Olive oil According to Plato, although olive oil `is helpful' (`Protagoras' 334B), it should not hold an important place in the diet, a notion, which is in contrast with the broad cultivation of olives in antiquity (Waterlow, 1989). In fact, olive and sesame were the primary sources of oil. Olive oil was used for anointing the skin as part of the body's hygiene (`Theaetetus' 144C and `Protagoras' 334B). Protagoras emphasises that olive oil `is good for the outward parts of man's body, but at the same time as bad as can be for the { All quotations from Plato's works are derived from: Fowler (1919 ± 1935). inward'. For this reason `all doctors forbid the sick to take oil, except the smallest possible quantity, if one is going to eat' (`Protagoras' 334B ± C). As stated by (...truncated)