Ritual plants of Muslim graveyards in northern Israel

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine BioMed Central Review Open Access Ritual plants of Muslim graveyards in northern Israel Amots Dafni*1, Efraim Lev2, Sabine Beckmann3 and Christian Eichberger4 Address: 1Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel, 2Department of Eretz Israel Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, 31905, Israel, 3Vigla Panagias, 72100 Agios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece and 4Department of Organismic Biology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria Email: Amots Dafni* - ; Efraim Lev - ; Sabine Beckmann - ; Christian Eichberger - * Corresponding author Published: 10 September 2006 Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2006, 2:38 doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-38 Received: 31 May 2006 Accepted: 10 September 2006 This article is available from: http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/2/1/38 © 2006 Dafni et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract This article surveys the botanical composition of 40 Muslim graveyards in northern Israel, accompanied by an ethnobotanical study of the folkloristic traditions of the use of these plants in cemeteries. Three groups of plants were found to be repeated systematically and were also recognized for their ritual importance: aromatics herbs (especially Salvia fruticosa and Rosmarinus officinalis), white flowered plants (mainly Narcissus tazetta, Urginea maritima, Iris spp. and Pancratium spp.) and Cupressus sempervirens as the leading cemetery tree. As endemic use we can indicate the essential role of S. fruticosa as the main plant used in all human rites of passage symbolizing the human life cycle. The rosemary is of European origin while the use of basil is of Indian influence. The use of white flowers as cemeteries plants reflects an old European influence and almost the same species are used or their congeners. Most of the trees and shrubs that are planted in Muslim cemeteries in Israel have the same use in ancient as well in modern European cultures. In conclusion, our findings on the occurrence of plants in graveyards reflect the geographic situation of Israel as a crossroads in the cultural arena between Asia and Europe. Most of the traditions are common to the whole Middle East showing high relatedness to the classical world as well as to the present-day Europe. Background Plants were used to mark rites of passage both in human and in the annual cycle, as well as to decorate and to symbolize [[1]:262]. Plants, especially flowers, have been used at funerals in many cultures [[1]:66–70; [2]:165–167; [3]: 3–5]. Folkard [[4]:193] wrote, "All nations at different periods seem to have delighted to deck the graves of their departed relatives with garlands of flowers. The association of certain trees and plants with death and its gloom- ing surrounding dates from a period remote and shadowy in its activity". A century later Vickery [[5]:196] noted: "Flowers symbolize human mortality, and are equally symbolic of resurrection and rebirth, springtime and autumn, renewal and decay, and have long continued to provide consolation and hope at critical times in man's life". Page 1 of 12 (page number not for citation purposes) Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2006, 2:38 In the New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt (16 – 12 centuries BC.) flowers of a particular sacred tree were considered life giving, so they were called "flowers of life". These flowers, and flowers of lotus, were used in funerals. Statues and coffins of the deceased were decorated with garlands of flowers [[6]:89]. According to Folkard [[4]:194] "The flowers strewed over graves by the Greeks were the Amaranth, Myrtle, and Polyanthous (=Narcissus)... The ancient Christians would choose different plants according to the age of the dead person: the flowers so used were deemed typical of the dead: to the young were assigned the blossoms of spring and summer, to middle age, aromatic herbs and the branches of primeval trees". Roman funerals demanded a lot of flowers. The corpse was adorned as an expression of honour and affection. The funeral urn was similarly decorated. Flowers were scattered on the guests at the funeral banquet, and wreaths of dry and artificial flowers were placed at the tomb. After the funeral, fresh flowers, especially roses, lilies and violets, were used to deck out tombs as a memorial to show that the dead were still remembered [[1]:67; [4]:195; [7]:151]. The ancient Israelites differed from other religions: "The culture of flowers had put down deep roots in most societies of the Mediterranean and the Near East, being rejected only by ancient Israelites. As we have seen the Israelites accepted neither the sacrifices made to their neighbour's gods nor the garlands that accompanied these offerings" [[1]:70]. Therefore, as a rejection of their neighbours' "idolatry", they did not display flowers or plants at their ceremonies. In modern times Orthodox Jews do not use flowers in ceremonies, synagogues, cemeteries or even in houses [[1]:46–47]. Vickery [[5]:187] mentioned "In communities where burial takes place very soon after death, as is the case with Orthodox Jews, flowers are rarely associated with mourning, and the substitutes are mainly stones". While Goody [[1]:46–47] stated "Down today one finds stones not flowers in the cemetery, and then as reminder rather than offering". Secular Jews bring garlands of flowers and leave them on the tombs, but the ultra-religious are forbidden to plant any plant or flower upon graves [[8]: IIV; 34–35]. Interestingly, several authors [9-11] dealing with Muslim funeral customs, don't mentioned any ceremonial use of plants of any kind. While Spoer and Spoer [[12]:131] mentioned that "sweet smelling herbs" are placed on graves in Palestine. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/2/1/38 The present article is a survey of the plants ritually used in Muslim graveyards of in northern Israel in the context of their cultural and ethnobotanical background. Methodology The field study (1999–2005) was carried out in 35 Muslim villages in northern Israel, mainly in the Galilee. Field observations included recording plant species in the graveyards. Oral interviews were held with 80 informants, 48 who are cited personally (Appendix 1). The average age of the informants was 59.3 (SD = 18.1) years. Respondents were 41 males and seven females. In general women were reluctant to be interviewed, and when they agreed the interview was held in the presence of other family members. The informants were mainly chosen according to their knowledge of common traditions and/or religious status. In each village we made a preliminary survey to locate people who are regarded as well immersed in local traditions a (...truncated)