Cognitive and affective Theory of Mind in adolescence: developmental aspects and associated neuropsychological variables

Psychological Research https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-019-01263-6 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Cognitive and affective Theory of Mind in adolescence: developmental aspects and associated neuropsychological variables Edith Theresa Gabriel1 · Raphaela Oberger1 · Michaela Schmoeger1 Eduard Auff1 · Ulrike Willinger1 · Matthias Deckert1 · Stefanie Vockh1 · Received: 25 February 2019 / Accepted: 25 October 2019 © The Author(s) 2019 Abstract Theory of Mind (ToM) is the ability to represent and attribute mental states to oneself and others. So far, research regarding ToM processing across adolescence is scarce. Existing studies either yield inconsistent results or did not or not thoroughly investigate aspects like higher order ToM and associated neuropsychological variables which the current study tried to address. 643 typically developing early, middle, and late adolescents (age groups 13–14; 15–16; 17–18) performed cognitive and affective ToM tasks as well as neuropsychological tasks tapping the cognitive or affective domain. Regarding both ToM types, 15- to 16-year-olds and 17- to 18-year-olds outperformed 13- to 14-year-olds, whereas females were superior regarding cognitive ToM. Across adolescence, cognitive and affective ToM correlated with attention and affective intelligence, whereas working memory, language comprehension, and figural intelligence additionally correlated with cognitive ToM. In early adolescence, attention correlated with both ToM types, whereas cognitive ToM further correlated with language comprehension and affective ToM with verbal intelligence, verbal fluency, and verbal flexibility. In middle and late adolescence, affective intelligence correlated with both ToM types, whereas cognitive ToM additionally correlated with working memory, language comprehension, and figural intelligence. The current study shows a developmental step regarding cognitive and affective ToM in middle adolescence as well as gender differences in cognitive ToM processing. Associations between neuropsychological variables and ToM processing were shown across adolescence and within age groups. Results give new insights into social cognition in adolescence and are well supported by neuroscientific and neurobiological studies regarding ToM and the integration of cognitive and affective processes. * Ulrike Willinger Edith Theresa Gabriel Raphaela Oberger Michaela Schmoeger Matthias Deckert Stefanie Vockh Eduard Auff 1 Department of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18‑20, 1090 Vienna, Austria 13 Vol.:(0123456789) Psychological Research Graphic abstract Research highlights • Cognitive and affective Theory of Mind (ToM) abilities increase significantly in adolescence and a developmental step in middle adolescence can be seen. • Girls outperform boys regarding cognitive ToM, but not regarding affective ToM. • Across adolescence, attention and affective intelligence are associated with cognitive and affective ToM; Cognitive ToM is additionally predicted by working memory, language comprehension, and figural intelligence. • Associated neuropsychological variables vary across ToM type and adolescent age group. • Results are supported by neuroscientific and neurobiological studies regarding ToM and the integration of cogni- tive and affective processes. Introduction Theory of Mind (ToM): definition, components, and its neurobiological bases “Theory of Mind” (ToM), first introduced by Premack and Woodruff (1978), is the ability to represent and attribute mental states such as knowledge, beliefs, expectations, intentions, and emotions to oneself and others, and can be used to understand and predict one’s own and other’s behavior 13 (e.g., Schlaffke et al., 2015). ToM is a complex construct that can be divided into affective ToM and cognitive ToM (e.g., Shamay-Tsoory & Aharon-Peretz, 2007). Affective ToM is represented by implications about emotions whereas cognitive ToM involves implications about knowledge, intentions, and beliefs (e.g., O’Brien et al., 2011). ToM seems to be a multi-order construct involving levels of increasing complexity ranging from a rather basic and simple first-order ToM (e.g., “X thinks or feels …”), to a second-order ToM (e.g., “X thinks that Y feels …”), and the more advanced and Psychological Research complex third-order ToM (e.g., “X believes that Y assumes that Z intends …”), see for example Brune and Brune-Cohrs (2006), Perner and Wimmer (1985), or Wimmer and Perner (1983). A specific neuronal ToM network was identified involving, inter alia, prefrontal, cingulate, temporal, parietal, limbic, and other subcortical regions (see e.g., Abu-Akel & Shamay-Tsoory, 2011). In this context, Abu-Akel and Shamay-Tsoory (2011) postulated a novel neurobiological model of ToM that indicates different processing steps in different ToM-specific brain regions and how they are influenced by attention and neurochemical systems. Representations of both cognitive and affective mental states are formed at the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and subsequently pass through the superior temporal sulcus (STS) or the precuneus/posterior cingulate complex (PCun/PCC) to different limbic–paralimbic regions where the cognitive or affective values are determined. Cognitive mental states are enabled by the dorsal regions of the temporal pole (dTP), anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), and lateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) whereas affective mental states are enabled by the ventral striatum, amygdala, ventral temporal pole (vTP), ventral anterior cingulate cortex (vACC), the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and inferolateral frontal cortex (ilFC). The interaction of cognitive and affective networks is seemingly mediated within the ACC. Whereas ToM performance is based on a network of distinct brain regions, the activation of this network seems to be significantly influenced by dorsal and ventral attention and selection systems as well as dopaminergic and serotonergic systems. Whereas this neurobiological model refers to mentalizing brain circuits in the brain of adults, according to the authors it further seems to provide a “suitable framework for examining the development of ToM” (Abu-Akel & Shamay-Tsoory, 2011, page 2981). ToM in childhood and adolescence: developmental aspects The ability to understand another person’s beliefs and reactions (1st order ToM) emerges approximately at age four to five (Wimmer & Perner, 1983). Whilst 6- and 7-yearolds usually are able to mentally represent and understand second-order beliefs (Perner & Wimmer, 1985), it has been shown that the ability to deal with third-order representations starts rudimentally when children are approximately 7 years (Astington & Dack, 2008). The development of ToM does not end in childhood but at least continues throughout adolescence and young adulthood (e.g., Vetter, Altgassen, Phillips, Mahy, & Kliegel, 2013). (...truncated)