Harmony as an Ethical and Political Idea

DOI: 10.4312/as.2019.7.1.115-128 115 Harmony as an Ethical and Political Idea Andrej ULE*1 Abstract Although the idea of harmony is one of the basic Confucian ideas, two of its key classic authors, Mengzi and Xunzi, emphasised either the ethical-personal or socio-political aspects, respectively, and this contrast was only maintained and deepened in later Chinese history. The socio-political considerations of harmony often considers an ideal state of community to be static, with social and ethical states being preserved, rather than dynamic. On the other hand, personal and spiritual harmony was valued by artists and autonomous thinkers, which often found themselves in conflict with the state. However, an open conflict between these two lines of thought very seldom if at all appeared in traditional China, and thus the differences often remained implicit. A self-cultivated individual without external social support was condemned to social isolation and personal defeat. Even among contemporary Chinese Marxist politicians and theorists, the idea of a “harmonious society” follows Xunzi’s rather legalist emphasis, even if (in Marx view) the term “social harmony” stands for some surface phenomena of seemingly harmonious societal interrelationship, covering up the brutal reality of social and economic contradictions. I argue that not only in China, but also elsewhere, a better balance is needed between the personal and the social ideas of harmony. However, manifesting harmony can become something worthwhile only if it becomes a part of a broader project, namely that of active solidarity based on the reciprocal and universal cultivation of personal dignity and virtuous humaneness. Key words: harmony, Confucianism, harmonious society, Marxism, solidarity Harmonija kot etična in politična ideja Izvleček Čeprav je ideja harmonije ena osrednjih konfucijanskih idej, sta dva od njenih osrednjih klasičnih avtorjev, Mengzi in Xunzi, poudarjala bodisi etično-osebne ali družbenopolitične vidike in to nasprotje se je ohranjalo in poglabljalo v nadaljnji zgodovini Kitajske. Družbeno-politično pojmovanje harmonije se pogosto opira na misel o idealnem stanju družbe, kjer se družbeno in etično stanje ohranja kot nekaj statičnega, ne pa dinamičnega. Po drugi strani so umetniki in samostojni misleci cenili osebno in duhovno harmonijo in so se zato pogosto znašli v konfliktu z državo. Vendar je v tradicionalni Kitajski le redko, * Andrej Ule, PhD, Full professor (emeritus), Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Email address: andrej.ule[at]guest.arnes.si AS_2019_1_FINAL.indd 115 31.1.2019 10:48:36 116 Andrej ULE: Harmony as an Ethincal and Political Idea če sploh, prihajalo do odkritega konflikta med tema pojmovanjema harmonije, zaradi česar so razlike pogosto ostajale implicitne. Samo-kultiviran posameznik brez zunanje socialne podpore je bil obsojen na družbeno izolacijo in osebni poraz. Celo med sodobnimi kitajskimi marksističnimi politiki in teoretiki zamisel o »harmonični družbi« sledi Xunzijevim precej legalističnim poudarkom, čeprav (po Marxovem pojmovanju) pojem »družbene harmonije« zajema površinske pojave domnevno harmoničnih družbenih odnosov, ki prikrivajo surovo naravo družbenih in ekonomskih protislovij. Zagovarjam misel, da ne le v Kitajski, temveč tudi drugje po svetu, potrebujemo boljše ravnotežje med osebnimi in družbenimi predstavami o harmoniji. Vendar je dejanska harmonija lahko nekaj vredna le, če postane del širšega projekta, namreč projekta aktivne solidarnosti, ki sloni na medsebojni in splošni kultivaciji osebnega dostojanstva in vrline človečnosti. Ključne besede: harmonija, konfucianstvo, harmonična družba, marksizem, solidarnost Introduction The idea of “harmony” (he 和) is one of the central ethical, social, and political ideas of Chinese culture (Zhihe 2012). It is the central idea of Confucianism, but it was also present in Daoism, Legalism and Chinese Buddhism. It encompasses the fundamental principles of nature, society and humanity. It is also a prerequisite for cultivating one’s morality, protecting one’s family, governing one’s nation and stabilising the world. In The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong 中庸), one of the Confucian classics, ascribed to Zisi, the grandson of Confucius, one reads the deep connection of harmony with the Dao of the world: 喜、怒、哀、樂之未發、謂之中。發而皆中節、謂之和。中也 者、天下之大本也。和也者、天下之達道也。致中和、天地位 焉、萬物育焉 Pleasure and anger, sorrow and joy: before they emerge they are called centred; emerging by the proper rhythms they are called harmonious. Centred: this is the great root of the world. Harmonious: this is the ultimate Dao of the world. Reaching centred harmony, heaven and earth take their proper places and the things of the world are nurtured thereby. (Eno 2016a, 1) Harmony presents the dynamic synthesis of unity and difference. The concept of harmony corresponds well with the fundamental Chinese mode of looking for social and political harmony, i.e., to correlative thinking which follows the ever fluid unity of contrarieties (tongbian 通變). Yijing (易經), The Book of Changes, a classic text in Chinese culture, emphasises “Grand Harmony” (datong 大同), AS_2019_1_FINAL.indd 116 31.1.2019 10:48:36 Asian Studies VII (XXIII), 1 (2019), pp. 115–128 117 which claims that the world is full of different things, yet all these harmonise even as they constantly change. As such harmony can be said to stand at the very core of Chinese traditional culture, and the yin-yang (陰陽) form is one of its main symbols. According to Confucius, striving for harmony was mostly an ethical principle. Striving after harmony is what characterises the behaviour of a “virtuous man” (junzi 雲子). Confucius in The Analects (論語) connected the striving for harmony with the fidelity to rites and rituals of propriety that were respected in the Zhou dynasty (li 礼) 有子曰：「禮之用，和為貴。先王之道斯為美，小大由之。有所不 行，知和而不以禮節之，亦不可行也。 Master You said: In the practice of li, harmony is the key. In the dao of the kings of old, this was the beauty. In all affairs, great and small, follow this. Yet there is one respect in which one does not. To act in harmony simply because one understands what is harmonious, but not to regulate one’s conduct according to li: indeed, one cannot act in that way. (Eno 2015, 1, 12) One of the main functions of rites and rituals of propriety (li) is precisely to harmonise people of various kinds. Confucius and his disciples take rituals as a central aspect of government and believe that, through the good use of rituals, good government can create a harmonious society. Confucius advocates the harmonious coexistence of different individuals, but without seeking likeness with others: 子曰：「君子和而不同，小人同而不和。」 The Master said: The junzi acts in harmony with others but does not seek to be like them; the small man seeks to be like others and does not act in harmony. (Lunyu 2018, Zi Lu, 23) One of the most important instruments of Confucian sages with regard to a (...truncated)