Migration from North-East India During 1991–2011: Unemployment and Ethnopolitical Issues

The Indian Journal of Labour Economics https://doi.org/10.1007/s41027-022-00379-5 ARTICLE Migration from North‑East India During 1991–2011: Unemployment and Ethnopolitical Issues Avijit Mistri1 Accepted: 21 June 2022 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Indian Society of Labour Economics 2022 Abstract Eight sister North-East states of India are unique in diverse flora and fauna and manifest distinctive social and ethnocultural identities. Meanwhile, North-East states exhibit common problems ranging from ethnic conflict, insurgency, and secessionist movement, illegal taxing and extortion, and drug trafficking to poor transportation and communication and immigration issues. The region incurs prolonged ethnopolitical turmoil, which left imprints on the migration from this region. The present study examines the level, trend, and pattern of interstate migration from the NorthEast during 1991–2011 and associates it with prolonged ethnopolitical turmoil. The exodus of workers to the mainland Indian states implies a lack of employment opportunities. Employment elasticity suggests that income growth in North-East states lacks inclusiveness and fails to sensitise the employment opportunities, inducing the workers to migrate from North-East into mainland Indian states. Not only the labour migration but the student migration is also conspicuous, which exhibits the weakness of the educational system. The decades-long ethnopolitical unrest and enforcement of AFSPA of 1958 for more than 60 years caused predicaments of economic developments, employment opportunities, and challenge to the fundamental human rights and social well-being, resulting in people being forced to move out in the 1990s and 2000s. Keywords Interstate migration · North-East India · Ethnopolitical turmoil · Employment elasticity · Student migration · Labour migration 1 Introduction Migration is an indicator that implies socio-economic changes in an area or region. In the 2011 Census, more than one-third of Indians, 37.6 per cent or 455.8 million, reported as lifetime migrants—four out of every ten Indian are migrants. The * Avijit Mistri 1 Department of Geography, Manipur University, Imphal 795003, Manipur, India 13 Vol.:(0123456789) ISLE The Indian Journal of Labour Economics proportion increased from 31 per cent or 314.5 million, with a growth rate of 4.5 per cent per annum between 2001 and 2011. When the total volume of migrants is quite large, interstate migrants are minuscule and have been surprisingly low since 1961. It was recorded 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.3, and 4.1 per cent in 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, and 2001, respectively, and finally reached 4.5 per cent or 54.3 million in 2011 (Das and Mistri 2015). As the cheap labour force is one of the important factors of production, interstate labour migration balances the demand of labour to the economically well-off states like Maharashtra, Gujrat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Delhi, Punjab, and Haryana, supplying from the economically less-progressive states, namely Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Rajasthan. This trend has remained the same since the 1991 Census (Mistri 2021). In the 2011 Census, the North-East States and even West Bengal contributed substantially to the labour force supply (Mistri 2021). Despite a very meagre proportion, interstate migration plays a significant role in India’s economic growth, and it shows unique characteristics for North-East states. The present study mainly focuses on migration from North-East states during 1991–2011 and its association with decades-long ethnopolitical turmoil. 2 North‑East as an Ethnopolitical Disturbed Frontier North-East India comprises eight sister states—Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Sikkim. It was politically recognised in 1972 when North Eastern Council (NEC) was formed by the North Eastern Council Act of 1971. Being a frontier region, North-East is geostrategically significant and a potential corridor for trading with the vibrant economic zone of South and South-East Asia. The region incurs a distinctive social and cultural identity. The multi-ethnic demographical composition of the indigenous peoples manifests a unique culture, language and religious profiles, which are not found in any other region of India. Meanwhile, North-East counters common problems ranging from poor transportation and communication, ethnic conflict and insurgency, illegal taxing and extortion, and drug trafficking to immigration issues. The ethnic-based conflicts often backed by underground organisations are still alive and mobile. Nowadays, ethnic movements in North-East have deviated from the traditional socio-cultural roots to ethnopolitical aspirations. A populist political aspiration, ‘self-determination’ has been witnessed in North-East politics (Shimray 2004). The demand for a Greater Nagaland (Nagalim), along with a separate constitution and flag consolidation of the Naga-inhabited areas of neighbouring Assam, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and border areas of Myanmar, creates widespread discontent among the North-East states. The ethnic consciousness in the region entices ‘identity expansion’ by merging, either voluntarily or forcefully, several smaller groups together (Shimray 2004). More than 40 odd ethnic groups combined emergence as great Nagas. Mizos include various clans, such as the Hmar, Ralte, Lai, Lusei, etc. Haokip, Kipgen, and other Thadou speaking groups together form Kuki Groups. The nomenclature, Zomi, is 13 ISLE The Indian Journal of Labour Economics adopted by Zous, Simtes, Vaipheis, Paites, Raltes, Suhtes, Gangte, and Tedim-Chin ethnic groups (Kipgen 2013; Shimray 2004). Demographic power strengthens the ethnopolitical movements and leads to ethnic hegemony of the majority over the minority, resulting in ethnic conflict. Kuki-Naga clash and Kuki-Zomi violence in the 1990s in Manipur and surroundings are notable instances (Brahmachari 2019; Hoenig and Kokho 2018; Haokip 2015; Shimray, 2004; 2001). Indeed, the ethnopolitical issue has been the internal security concern of India as a nation. More than 60 years of implementation Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) of 1958 has failed to tackle the problem (Yumnam 2018), and reassessment is an urgent need. Economic development and social well-being are embedded in a peaceful environment (Aisen and Veiga 2013; Fosu 2001; Feng 1997; Alesina et al. 1996). Migration acts as a barometer that infers the socio-political and economic changes in a region. Conflict, insurgency and political instability are used to leave an imprint on the processes of migration. More than one million North-East people, around two per cent of interstate migrants in India, were recorded as interstate migrants in each of the 2001 and 2011 Census. The highest proportion of Scheduled Tribes (STs) lives in the North-East States. Indigenous people hardly leave their te (...truncated)