Design for remanufacturing in China: a case study of electrical and electronic equipment

Gillian D Hatcher 0 Winifred L Ijomah 0 James F C Windmill 1 0 Design Manufacture and Engineering Management , 4th Floor Architecture Building, University of Strathclyde , Glasgow G4 0NG, UK 1 Electronic and Electrical Engineering , R3.40a, Royal College Building, University of Strathclyde , Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK As global demand for consumer goods continues to rise, the problem of waste electrical and electronic equipment (or e-waste) increases. E-waste is of particular concern to the world's governments and environmentalists alike, not just because of the sheer quantity that is being produced annually, but also because e-waste often contains both hazardous materials and scarce or valuable materials. Much research is now focused upon how this waste can be treated safely, economically, and in an environmentally sound manner. This paper presents the findings from a literature review and case study research conducted as a small part of the Globally Recoverable and Eco-friendly Eequipment Network with Distributed Information Service Management (GREENet) project. The GREENet project aims to share knowledge and expertise in e-waste treatment across Europe (in this case, the UK) and China. The focus of this particular study was upon 'design for remanufacture' and e-waste in China: as a remanufacturing industry begins to emerge, are Chinese original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) prepared to design more remanufacturable products and could electrical and electronic products become a part of this industry? Findings presented in this paper suggest that design for remanufacture could become more relevant to Chinese OEMs in the near future, as environmental legislation becomes increasingly stringent and a government remanufacturing pilot scheme expands. However, findings from case studies of Chinese e-waste recyclers would suggest that electrical and electronic products are not presently highly suited to the remanufacturing process. - Background Design for remanufacture Remanufacturing is the process of returning a used product to a like-new condition through inspection, disassembling, cleaning, reprocessing, reassembling, and testing. Components which cannot be reused in this way are replaced with new components, and the final remanufactured product may be sold at a lower price than a newly manufactured equivalent, but with an equal warranty [1]. Remanufacturing differs from traditional recycling in that the used products are recycled at a component level, as opposed to a raw material level (see Figure 1). Remanufacturing is often confused with reconditioning, when the used product is returned to a working condition but will not have an equal warranty to a newly manufactured equivalent. Repair typically involves simply the correction of specific faults in the product. While remanufacturing requires more work (including energy and expense) than reconditioning or repairing, the resultant product will be of a higher quality with a further extended life in use. Therefore, remanufacturing can often be considered more energysaving and cost-effective when compared to other end-of -life processes [2]. However, not all products are suitable for remanufacture. As a general rule, the product must be durable (able to withstand multiple lifecycles) and contain highvalue parts (worth investing in). Also, there must be market demand for the remanufactured products. Products typically remanufactured in the UK include automotive products, pumps and compressors, and off-road equipment [4]. As well as product characteristics such as high-value parts or a return flow of used products (i.e., factors beyond the control of the designer), the efficiency and effectiveness of the remanufacturing process can also greatly depend upon how the product has been Figure 1 End-of-life treatment loops. Unlike recycling, remanufacturing does not require raw material processing or component manufacture [3]. designed (factors within the designers control): features such as fastening and joining methods, product architecture, and material choice can have an effect upon ease of disassembly, ease of reprocessing, and so on [5,6]. This understanding has led to the concept of design for remanufacture or DfRem, and the development of DfRem guidelines [5]. According to the literature, very few companies currently design for remanufacture [7]. However, in the USA and Europe, examples can be found of companies with successful remanufacturing operations, maximising the potential of their products through DfRem [8,9]. E-waste in the UK and China The term e-waste refers to waste electrical and electronic equipment, such as computers, wireless devices, and white goods. It is most commonly used within the context of discarded consumer products. E-waste is a growing global problem, with million tonnes annually discarded by UK households alone. Some of this waste may be reused or recycled, but the significant proportion of this mass that ends up in landfill or incineration can have a highly detrimental environmental impact [10]. Furthermore, as our consumer culture shows little sign of abatement, including populous, emerging economies such as China [11], the situation is likely to get worse before it improves. Therefore, many countries, including the UK (European Union (EU)) and China have made attempts to implement legislation with the intention of reducing the volume of e-waste generated and ensuring that producers of such products take responsibility for the environmentally sound treatment and disposal of their waste. Waste electrical and electronic equipment legislation in the UK and China The European Union was among the first to attempt to legislate e-waste, with the introduction of the waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) Directive [12]. Although all member states were expected to comply by 2004, it was not until 2007 that the UK finally implemented the WEEE Directive [13]. The EU WEEE Directive promotes extended producer responsibility (EPR) with which original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) are obliged to contribute financially to the treatment of all WEEE in their given country. In the UK, OEMs of electrical and electronic equipment (which fall within the ten categories outlined in the Directive) must pay into a producer compliance scheme which will finance the take-back and recycling of all electronic products which qualify, regardless of brand. Producer compliance schemes must be approved by the Environment Agency in the UK, and the funds they raise will be used by approved companies for e-waste recycling. Furthermore, OEMs are obliged to provide free take-back of e-waste, either through a take-back scheme or through retailers. Collection targets, however, are placed on the member states, as opposed to the OEMs: at least 4 kg of household waste per capita per year [14]. This target is surprisingly low, considering electronic waste accounts for an estimated 4% of European household waste, which would me (...truncated)