Comprehensive study on photovoltaic cell

Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-024-00292-5 (2025) 14:21 REVIEW PAPER Comprehensive study on photovoltaic cell's generation and factors affecting its performance: A Review Prabhakar Sharma1,2 · Ritesh Kumar Mishra2 Received: 27 May 2024 / Accepted: 18 December 2024 © The Author(s) 2025 Abstract The utilization of fossil fuels for power generation results in the production of a greater quantity of pollutants and greenhouse gases, which exerts detrimental impacts on the ecosystem. A range of solar energy technologies can be employed to address forthcoming energy demands, concurrently mitigating pollution and protecting the world from global threats. This study critically reviewed all four generations of photovoltaic (PV) solar cells, focusing on fundamental concepts, material used, performance, operational principles, and cooling systems, along with their respective advantages and disadvantages. The manuscript analyzes various materials, including their performance, physical properties (electronic and optical), biodegradability, availability, cost, temperature stability, degradation rate, and other parameters. The sensible engineering of effective solar devices made of cutting -edge materials along with nanostructured ternary metal sulphides, and three-dimensional graphene are also briefly discussed which are more versatile, stable, thin and light weight with high performance as compare to third generation solar cells. The impact of material alterations is delineated in PV, where the efficiency of solar cell technology has improved from 4% to 47.1%. Further the research article deals with different internal and external stress factors affecting the solar PV module performance. Keywords Photovoltaic effect · Amorphous silicon · Thin film structure · Dye-sensitized · Quantum-dot solar cells · Perovskite and concentrated solar cells Abbreviations AQI Air Quality Index ARC Anti Reflective Coating a-Si Amorphous Silicon BOM Bill of Materials CdS Cadmium Sulphide CdTe Cadmium Telluride CIGS Copper Indium Gallium Selenide CNTs Carbon Nanotubes CPV Concentrated Photovoltaics c-Si Crystalline Silicon CZ Czochralski CZTS Copper Zinc Tin Sulphide DC Direct Current DSCC Solar Cells with Dye Sensitivity * Prabhakar Sharma 1 Department of ECE, ITSEC, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India 2 Department of ECE, National Institute of Technology-Patna, Patna, Bihar, India EU European Union FF Fill Factor GaAs Gallium Arsenide GW Giga Watt IEA International Energy Agency ITO Indium Tin Oxide ITRPV International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic LCOE Levelised Cost of Electricity mc-Si Monocrystalline Silicon MJSC Multiple Junction Solar Cell nm Nanometers PCE Power Conversion Efficiency PERC Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell PSC Perovskite Solar Cell PV Photovoltaic QDs Quantum Dots QDSC Quantum Dot Solar Cells SJ Single-Junction SWCNT Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube TCO Transparent Conductive Glass Substrate TOPcon Tunnel Oxide Passivating Contacts Vol.:(0123456789) 21 Page 2 of 28 USD United State Dollar UV Ultraviolet UVA Ultraviolet-A UVB Ultraviolet-B ZnTe Zinc Telluride Introduction Solar PV systems play a pivotal role in harnessing solar energy for the purpose of generating electricity. The Sun serves as an abundant reservoir of energy. Only a fraction of the solar energy we receive is utilized by human beings. It is plausible that the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface has the potential to meet the increasing demands for energy. In the year 2022, there was a notable increase in the production of solar PV energy, with a significant rise of 286 gigawatts (GW), which means about 26% growth. This surge led to a total solar PV output of nearly 1200 GW [1] and this is the first time, it surpassed wind energy in terms of absolute generation increase. It is projected that solar PV manufacturing investment in India and the United States will amount to over 25 billion United State Dollar (USD) throughout the period of 2022–2027. This represents a substantial growth of seven times when compared to the previous five-year period. India is projected to witness a significant increase in its renewable power capacity, with an estimated addition of 145 GW, resulting in nearly a doubling of its current capacity, during the period of 2022–2027. The generation of electricity from wind and solar PV sources is projected to experience a significant increase over the next five years, resulting in a more than two-fold growth. By the year 2027, these renewable energy sources are expected to contribute over 20% of the total worldwide power generation, as shown in Fig. 1 [2]. Throughout history, humanity has heavily depended on a variety of traditional energy sources, including fossil fuels, coal, natural gas, agricultural waste, and many more. Fig. 1  Share of Global power generation by different technologies, 2010–2027. Source: IEA analysis based on World Energy Outlook 2022 Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2025) 14:21 The prolonged utilization of these limited reserve energy sources has given rise to a multitude of environmental hazards, encompassing but not limited to atmospheric pollution, aquatic contamination, alterations in climate patterns, and a perilous impact on biodiversity. Therefore, sustainable and environmentally friendly energy sources, also known as nonconventional energy sources is preferred. It is possible to get energy repeatedly from a variety of sustainable energy sources, including solar, wind, biomass, fuel cell, geothermal and tidal energy. Solar power is accessible to the entire world, making it an extremely desired and suitable replacement for fossil fuels. According to a recent assessment by the International Energy Agency (IEA), solar energy continued its dominance as the primary contributor to the expansion of worldwide renewable capacity in 2022, with a capacity of 286 GW. By the year 2024, it is projected that the capacity will increase to over 310 GW. This growth can be attributed to the declining costs of modules, increased adoption of distributed PV systems, and a governmental emphasis on the widespread implementation of large-scale PV installations. According to the main-case prediction of the IEA, it is projected that global renewable capacity will witness a substantial growth of around 2,400 GW, representing a significant rise of nearly 75%, during the period from 2022 to 2027 [2, 3]. To meet the world's energy needs while also protecting the environment, renewable energy technologies have a great deal of potential. In addition, this technology is the most advantageous and effective renewable energy source currently available. Solar PV technology is a major force behind electrifying rural areas in developing nations [4]. The main benefit of employing PV cells is the direct conversion of solar energy into direct current (DC). Additionally, operati (...truncated)