Improvement of the efficiency and stability of solar cells using grating and hole-transferring nickel oxide-graphene oxide double-layer

Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy https://doi.org/10.1007/s40243-025-00301-1 (2025) 14:27 ORIGINAL PAPER Improvement of the efficiency and stability of solar cells using grating and hole‑transferring nickel oxide‑graphene oxide double‑layer Ali Farmani1 · Anis Omidniaee1 Received: 3 June 2024 / Accepted: 19 February 2025 © The Author(s) 2025 Abstract This work improved energy efficiency, stability and energy stability in organic and organic perovskite solar cells, by using titanium dioxide as anti-reflective coating on silver. The use of graphene oxide-nickel oxide layer as a hole-transporting layer enhanced carrier mobility in addition to incrementing stability. The outcomes that have been meticulously extracted and analyzed from the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations provide compelling evidence that this particular methodology can be adeptly utilized to significantly enhance the capability to attain a remarkably broad absorption spectrum across a wide range of wavelengths, specifically those identified frorm 200 nm to 900 nm, which are of critical importance in solar cell applications. Optical analysis was conducted by Maxwell method. Dielectric plasmonic wire grating was proposed to increase optical absorbance and achieve maximum current. The electrical analysis of the structure was based on Poisson’s equations. Optical analysis of the inorganic halide perovskite revealed current density, open circuit voltage, fill factor, and power of 34.294 mA/cm2, 1.04 V, 0.83369817, and 1.64 mA/cm2. The energy conversion efficiency was also 29.3%. Keywords Inorganic halide perovskites · Metal nanoparticles · Solar cell · Plasmonics Introduction Solar cells represent a pivotal renewable energy source, harnessing solar energy to address both energy demands and environmental challenges. Recent advancements in photovoltaic technology, including various materials and designs, have enhanced their efficiency and applicability. A type of solar cell includes perovskite materials mainly an organic halide with perovskite [1]. This material enjoys tunable band gap (1.2–3.1 eV), long charge propagation intervals, high optical absorption, and non-polar mobility of carriers due to photons; resulting in its wide application in solar cells. The operation of solar cells is powered by the photoelectric effect (the transformation of light into electricity)[2]. Perovskite solar cells offer higher efficiency at lower energy. Some parameters like the type of materials (their compatibility and uniform deposition), thickness of the layers, shape of nanoparticles in metal compounds can Improving the performance and efficiency of solar cells [3]. * Ali Farmani 1 School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Lorestan University, Khoramabad, Iran The use of metal nanoparticles has the potential to absorb light. The plasmonic properties of metal nanoparticles can improve the absorption in solar cells, especially the integration of the nanoparticles with the back side of the perovskite material, resulting in higher absorption than the front side [4, 5]. Research on the design of perovskite solar cells has shifted towards a combination of organic and inorganic halide perovskites due to their high charge transport and high optical collection capability at certain wavelengths. Inorganic perovskites, however, face some challenges as the lack of precise thickness control of these materials at large scale can decrement the efficiency [6, 7]. The shape and size of metal nanoparticles is an important geometric parameter affecting the performance of solar cells and their compatibility with organic compounds in perovskite solar cells. Materials such as silica have received much attention as active nanoparticles in perovskite compounds due to their high compatibility. High power conversion nanoparticles have been also introduced as another effective factor in the efficiency of solar cells and their performance improvement [8–11]. Recently, Seqaei and his colleagues investigated using a Spiro-MeOTAD layer with silver nanoparticles embedded in the perovskite structure of a solar cell. The multilayer structure consists of fluorine oxide, titanium Vol.:(0123456789) 27 Page 2 of 11 dioxide, perovskite/spiro-MeOTAD embedded with silver and aluminum nanoparticles, which were characterized by a high absorption capacity of 24.84% in the range of 300–3100 nm [12]. In addition to the type of gold material in the structure, which increases the recombination rate, the shape of the nanoparticles can play an effective role in enhancing absorption and improving flux transmission [13]. Based on Ahmadi et al., there is a band gap in the methylammonium lead iodide material which allows low energy rays to pass through without absorption [14]. The purpose of this study is to investigate a graphene oxide/ Fig. 1  A schematic diagram of the total proess Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy (2025) 14:27 nickel oxide bilayer for absorption in the active region of a perovskite solar cell. Increasing stability is a challenge, especially in constructions made of organic materials [15, 16]. This study shows that this complementary bilayer can improve light collection in the Vis-IR region by increasing the stability of the perovskite solar cell. By controlling the direction of light scattering through Mai resonance, they direct the light beam in the subwave range [17, 18]. The second layer of nickel oxide was used as an electron transfer layer. Nickel oxide has insufficient hole extraction, poor contact, relatively low efficiency, and lower filling Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Page 3 of 11 (2025) 14:27 27 Table 1  Structural parameters of the perovskite cell Fig. 2  A 3D schematic of the perovskite structure factor values. This layer is responsible for attracting electrons from the perovskite layer and blocking holes in the graphene oxide, which acts as a catalyst and accelerates the transfer of positively charged nonlocal electrons on the perovskite layer. Being an amorphous structure, these connections lead to current interruptions and open circuit voltage suppression. Therefore, the optimal thickness of the perovskite layer was determined to be 400 nm [19]. The fifth layer consists of the commonly used Spiro-MeOTAD, which is well compatible with the electronic properties of inorganic halide perovskite whose performance is based on electron blocking and hole extraction. The effectiveness of the open circuit voltage depends on the surface conditions of the inorganic halide material [20]. The use of metal nanoparticles at sizes below the incident wavelength in the quasi-static limit creates a strong interaction between free electrons and electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic light fluctuations and oscillating electrons create a dipole field in the vicinity of the metal nanoparticles [21]. The physical and chemical properties of the electronic structure of the i (...truncated)