Secure and efficient cloudlet networks: blockchain integration with agent-based proof of trust mechanism

(2025) 2025:15 Masango et al. J Wireless Com Network https://doi.org/10.1186/s13638-025-02439-y RESEARCH EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking Open Access Secure and efficient cloudlet networks: blockchain integration with agent‑based proof of trust mechanism Nothile C. Masango1, Jeffrey O. Agushaka2, Mercy C. Amaefule2, Olutosin Taiwo3, Peiying Zhang4, Absalom E. Ezugwu5*, Kashif Saleem6, Aseel Smerat7 and Laith Abualigah8* *Correspondence: ; 1 School of Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, King Edward Avenue, Pietermaritzburg Campus, Pietermaritzburg 3201, KwaZulu‑Natal, South Africa 2 Department of Computer Science, Federal University of Lafia, Lafia 950101, Nigeria 3 Department of Mathematical Sciences, Anchor University, Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria 4 Qingdao Institute of Software, College of Computer Science and Technology, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China 5 School Unit for Data Science and Computing, North-West University, 11 Hoffman Street, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa 6 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, College of Applied Studies and Community Service, King Saud University, 11362 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 7 Faculty of Educational Sciences, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman 19328, Jordan 8 Computer Science Department, Al al-Bayt University, Mafraq 25113, Jordan Abstract Data security in mobile environments has become a critical concern, driven by the growing demand for mobile services and the proliferation of data-intensive applications such as online gaming, virtual reality, and augmented reality. These applications generate massive amounts of data, challenging the storage, computational capacity, and battery life of mobile devices. Cloud environments offer a solution through task offloading, but centralized architectures introduce latency and potential vulnerabilities. Edge computing-based cloudlet networks have emerged as a promising alternative, providing localized resources to enhance service quality. However, their proximity to users increases susceptibility to security threats, posing barriers to widespread adoption. This paper presents a novel approach to addressing these challenges by integrating blockchain technology with cloudlet networks, bolstered by an agentlayer concept. The proposed architecture features an agent between mobile devices and cloudlets, utilizing a unique "proof of trust" consensus mechanism. This mechanism evaluates trust and experience based on the number of coins held by nodes, selecting miners for message verification using an elliptic curve cryptography scheme. In cases of dispute, a third miner resolves conflicts, with incorrect verifications resulting in penalties that deter malicious behavior. Experimental results demonstrate that this solution significantly enhances security, mitigates latency, and improves network performance compared to existing methods. These findings highlight the potential of blockchain-integrated cloudlet networks to revolutionize mobile data processing, offering robust security and reliable interactions between mobile devices and cloudlets. Keywords: Cloudlet, Blockchain, Performance evaluation, Security, Consensus mechanism, Proof of trust 1 Introduction In recent years, the demand for mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, has witnessed a significant surge, largely attributed to the fact that most communication activities now occur via these portable gadgets [1]. This proliferation has been further accelerated by the advent of advanced network technologies such as 5G and LTE, giving © The Author(s) 2025. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Masango et al. J Wireless Com Network (2025) 2025:15 rise to revolutionary mobile application frameworks. These frameworks, while enabling more sophisticated features and capabilities, also come with higher resource demands, increased data storage requirements, and a greater need for computational power. However, the inherent limitations of mobile devices have posed a challenge in accommodating such resource-intensive applications [2]. To address this issue and support a growing user base while expanding service offerings within the constraints of mobile device hardware, cloud computing emerged as a groundbreaking solution. Cloud computing provides a wealth of benefits, including substantial processing power, ample memory, and extensive storage capacities, all of which can adapt to the dynamic and evolving needs of users [3]. The introduction of cloud computing has paved the way for the implementation of innovative applications without being hindered by the limitations of mobile devices. Through the concept of migrating data or computational tasks to cloud servers, mobile devices can effectively leverage the cloud as an extension of themselves, augmenting their capabilities and circumventing resource constraints [2]. This paradigm shift in computing offers services that introduce flexibility and mobility into the industrial landscape. Mobile devices can offload resource-intensive tasks to the cloud, enabling cloud servers to handle complex computations and return results to the mobile users. Nevertheless, a challenge emerges when considering the geographical distance between cloud servers and users. This spatial separation can lead to communication delays and potential bandwidth costs, particularly when numerous devices are connected to the internet. These latency-sensitive applications, including real-time applications, may suffer due to the complex network conditions inherent in wide area network (WAN) environments [2]. In a recent development, the cloudlet paradigm has emerged as a solution to address the challenges mentioned earlier. Cloudlet technology aims to optimize resource utilization by offloading computation tasks and storage between the cloud and edge devices. However, this shift toward edge computing raises significant concerns, particularly in the realm of security. The myriad possibilities presented by edge computing, such as distributed cloudlets and massive data processing, have exposed vulnerabilities in existing secu (...truncated)