Assessment of carbohydrates, minerals, and potentially toxic elements: risk evaluation in traditionally produced sugarcane jaggery

Elbagory et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2026) 8:14 https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-025-00357-6 Food Production, Processing and Nutrition Open Access RESEARCH Assessment of carbohydrates, minerals, and potentially toxic elements: risk evaluation in traditionally produced sugarcane jaggery Mohssen Elbagory1, Nagwa EL‑Khateeb2,3, Sahar El‑Nahrawy4, Alaa El‑Dein Omara4, Sadeq K. Alhag1, Marwa Yasien Helmy Elbyaly5, Madhumita Goala6, Pankaj Kumar7,8, Rattan Singh9*, Željko Andabaka10 and Ivan Širić10 Abstract Jaggery, a traditional unrefined sugar widely consumed across India, serves as a source of natural carbohydrates and essential minerals. However, regional variations in production and environmental conditions may influence its nutritional composition and contaminant levels. The present study aimed to evaluate carbohydrate content, mineral composition, and potentially toxic elements in jaggery samples (n = 24; three replicates per district across eight major production districts of India). Carbohydrate fractions were determined using colorimetric and HPLC methods, while elemental composition was analyzed through atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Results showed high total sugar and sucrose contents, confirming jaggery as an energy-rich food. The samples also contained nutritionally relevant levels of calcium, iron, and potassium, with concentrations varying across regions. Trace amounts of Pb, Cd, and Ni were detected, but none exceeded the permissible limits set by international food safety standards. Although no immediate exceedance of limits was found, prolonged and continuous exposure could pose potential concern. The findings highlight the nutritional significance of traditional jaggery while emphasizing the need for continuous quality monitoring to ensure consumer safety. Keywords Carbohydrates, Heavy metals, Food safety, Health risk assessment, Minerals, Sugarcane jaggery *Correspondence: Rattan Singh Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2026. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. Elbagory et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2026) 8:14 Page 2 of 19 Introduction Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is one of the most widely cultivated crops in tropical and subtropical regions, contributing significantly to global sugar and ethanol production (Nair & Sachan, 2022). With over 1.9 billion metric tons produced annually, sugarcane serves as a major source of sucrose, bioethanol, and byproducts such as bagasse and molasses (Anitha et al., 2024). Countries like Brazil, India, China, and Thailand dominate sugarcane cultivation, collectively accounting for more than 75% of global production (McKay et al., 2016). The economic importance of sugarcane extends beyond the sugar industry, influencing energy production, food processing, and the pharmaceutical sector (Eggleston & Lima, 2015). India is the second-largest producer of sugarcane globally, with annual production exceeding 34 million metric tons (Quereshi et al., 2022; Solomon et al., 2022). In India, sugarcane is a primary commercial crop, cultivated extensively in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu (Ram et al., 2022). India is one of the leading sugarcane-producing countries, contributing significantly to the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and rural employment (Lee et al., 2020). Jaggery, also known as gur, is an unrefined and noncentrifugal sugar (NCS) product produced through traditional methods (Venkatesh et al., 2023) which involves sugarcane juice extraction, boiling, and solidification (Fig. 1). In India, jaggery is traditionally produced in small village-level processing units known as Kolhus, where sugarcane juice is clarified, concentrated, and molded without refined industrial processing (Goel et al., 2007). Unlike refined sugar production, which involves advanced industrial processing, jaggery production follows traditional methods and utilizes sugarcane grown on village farms (Suresha et al., 2024). The Indian sugar industry comprises both large-scale sugar mills and small-scaleproducing units, the latter playing a crucial role in rural economies. India has over 532 sugar mills and more than 100,000 jaggery-making units, collectively supporting millions of farmers and laborers (CPCB, 2024; Kumar & Mahesh, 2022; Sun, 2023). Additionally, the jaggery sector employs rural populations, sustaining traditional methods of sugarcane utilization. The process of jaggery Graphical Abstract Elbagory et al. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition (2026) 8:14 Page 3 of 19 Fig. 1 Stepwise process of jaggery production in village factories (Kolhus) of North Indian districts. (Source: created by authors based on information gathered during sampling) production includes crushing sugarcane to extract juice, clarifying the juice with natural coagulants such as lime, and concentrating it by boiling it in open pans (Suresha et al., 2024). The thickened syrup is then poured into molds and allowed to cool into solid blocks or granules. Unlike refined sugar production, which involves sulfidation and crystallization, jaggery-making is an artisanal process that retains natural minerals and bioactive compounds (Venkatesh et al., 2023). Jaggery is a rich source of carbohydrates, primarily sucrose (50%–80%), glucose, and fructose (Ukey et al., 2024). It also contains essential minerals such as iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K), making it nutritionally superior to refined sugar (Pal et al., 2021). The presence of polyphenols and antioxidants enhances its health benefits (Harish Nayaka et al., 2009). Regular consumption of jaggery is associated with improved digestion, enhanced immunity, and detoxification due to its natural Fe content (Singh & Rao, 2021). Additionally, jaggery is recognized as a traditional dietary sweetener that provides a quick source of energy and has been historically associated with folk medici (...truncated)