Volunteerism: Social Network Dynamics and Education

Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences cite as: J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci, 2016, Vol. 71, No. 2, 309–319 doi:10.1093/geronb/gbu166 Advance Access publication December 14, 2014 Original Article Volunteerism: Social Network Dynamics and Education Kristine J. Ajrouch,1,2 Toni C. Antonucci,2 and Noah J. Webster2 Correspondence should be addressed to Kristine J. Ajrouch, PhD, Department of Sociology, Anthropology, Criminology, Eastern Michigan University, 712 Pray-Harrold,Ypsilanti, MI 48197. Email: Received February 10, 2014; Accepted October 27, 2014 Decision Editor: J. Scott Brown, PhD Abstract Objectives: We examine how changes in social networks influence volunteerism through bridging (diversity) and bonding (spending time) mechanisms. We further investigate whether social network change substitutes or amplifies the effects of education on volunteerism. Methods: Data (n = 543) are drawn from a two-wave survey of Social Relations and Health over the Life Course (SRHLC). Zero-inflated negative binomial regressions were conducted to test competing hypotheses about how changes in social network characteristics alone and in conjunction with education level predict likelihood and frequency of volunteering. Results: Changes in social networks were associated with volunteerism: as the proportion of family members decreased and the average number of network members living within a one-hour drive increased over time, participants reported higher odds of volunteering. The substitution hypothesis was supported: social networks that exhibited more geographic proximity and greater contact frequency over-time compensated for lower levels of education to predict volunteering more hours. Discussion: The dynamic role of social networks and the ways in which they may work through bridging and bonding to influence both likelihood and frequency of volunteering are discussed. The potential benefits of volunteerism in light of longer life expectancies and smaller families are also considered. Key Words: Education—Longitudinal—Social Networks—Volunteering Older persons’ participation in volunteering activities have increased dramatically in the last decades of the 20th century (Ajrouch, Akiyama, & Antonucci, 2007; Chambré, 1993), particularly among the young-old (Windsor, Anstey, & Rodgers, 2008; Wilson, 2000). Volunteering represents an opportunity for older adults to engage their social networks, as they contribute to their communities and society at large. Perhaps, the most compelling aspect of volunteering is the documented positive effects for the person volunteering, including physical and psychological health benefits (Li & Ferraro, 2005; Morrow-Howell, Hinterlong, Rozario, & Tang, 2003; Windsor, Anstey, & Rodgers, 2008). Predicting both the likelihood and frequency of volunteering, therefore, holds special importance for efforts to optimize health and well-being among older people. In addition, while much is known about the role of education in facilitating volunteerism (Brown & Ferris, 2007; Wilson & Musick, 1998), much less is known about the role of social networks. Social networks are considered critical resources or pathways for volunteering. In the volunteer literature, networks are often measured in terms of community or association linkages, as well as contact frequency (Li & Ferraro, 2005; Morrow-Howell et al., 2003; Wilson, 2000; Windsor et al., 2008). Composition and geographic proximity of network members receive limited attention, yet may represent key aspects of social networks important for understanding volunteerism (Paik & Navarre-Jackson, 2011; Pilkington, Windsor, & Crisp, 2012). Composition captures a more nuanced element of network membership, whereas geographic proximity may promote face-to-face connections. © The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: . 309 Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Criminology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti. 2Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 1 310 Theoretical Framework We consider social networks as an important resource that changes across the life course. Therefore, we draw from multiple theoretical perspectives that convey the role social networks play in facilitating access to opportunities and in shaping outcomes. First, we use the Convoy Model of Social Relations (Antonucci, 2001; Antonucci, Ajrouch, & Birditt, 2014; Kahn & Antonucci, 1980), which describes social networks as multidimensional, dynamic and lifelong, changing in some ways, but remaining stable in others, across time and situations. As such, social networks can be considered a form of social capital (Antonucci, Ajrouch, & Park, 2014) one has access to varying amounts across their life. Social capital “is created when the relations among persons change in ways that facilitate action” (Coleman, 1990, p. 304). The ways in which networks change may provide critical insights into potential avenues of sociability, including integration, active engagement, and overall well-being. The systematic study of the multidimensional and dynamic nature of social networks represents a potential avenue for better understanding how older adults access volunteering opportunities. Little is known about the ways in which networks change over time to influence volunteer behavior. Such change may particularly influence volunteerism in that the multiple dimensions of social networks yield the potential to promote social ties through bridging and bonding concepts drawn on from social network theory. Paik and Navarre-Jackson (2011) describe each. Bridging promotes connections as a result of the diversity of social ties, which includes whether they grow or diminish in size, and whether they change in composition to include those who are in general older or younger, family, or friends. Bonding, on the other hand, promotes connections as a result of spending time with network members. This may be inferred from changes in proximity, that is living closer or further away and increasing contact frequency reports with network members result in bonding between network members. We hypothesize that changes in social networks promote connections with others through bridging and bonding, which may in turn prompt volunteerism either directly, or in conjunction with human capital characteristics, notably education. We further draw from the convoy model to posit that personal characteristics, such as education operate in tandem with social network characteristics to influence outcomes. Education level, an indicator of human capital, and social network characteristics, an indicator of social capital, are proposed to interact with one another, and have been examined as two competing hypotheses or influences on volunteering activities (Wilson & Musick, 1998). The first hypothesis is one of substitution, suggesting that lo (...truncated)